Behavior Modification in Children: Learning and Conditioning, by Hector Garcia

            Normal behavior in children depends on the child’s age, personality and physical and emotional development. A child’s behavior may be a problem if it does not match the expectations of the family or it is disruptive. Behaviorism is an important type of learning theory. Behaviorism hypothesizes that personality is made up of habits formed by the environment. People are born neither good nor bad. They are a product of their environment. Behaviorism looks into two types of conditioning: classical and operant.

            Classical conditioning (Pavlov) is a type of training in which two stimuli are connected, so that the subject learns to respond to the second stimuli in the same way that they respond to the first stimuli (Learning Theory, 1995-2009). In other words. classical conditioning focuses on what happens prior to a behavior and how that prior event becomes connected to a behavior. The behavior stops once the thing reinforcing the learned behavior is removed for a period of time. Even though the new learned behavior is stopped the prior learning has not been completely erased from the mind. If the connections that trained the new behavior are reestablished then the new behavior quickly starts again. This is known as spontaneous recovery.

Stem Cells, by Dominique Claridy

            Since the last decade, medical advancements have become more popular throughout the world. In today’s society the most controversial medical advancements is the stem cells and stem cell research and the ethics problems that follow it. However, stem cells were starting to get viewed as the foundation for human life in the mid 1800s. But it was not until the 20^th century, when scientists in Europe first discovered that stem cells were in fact the source of all bloods cells. In 1998, stem cells used to regenerate damaged organs became possible, which James Thomas at the University of Wisconsin and John Gearhart grew the first human embryonic stem cells. This is what the first seed of controversy on the topic stem cells were planted.

Stem Cells, by Dominique Claridy

            Since the last decade, medical advancements have become more popular throughout the world. In today’s society the most controversial medical advancements is the stem cells and stem cell research and the ethics problems that follow it. However, stem cells were starting to get viewed as the foundation for human life in the mid 1800s. But it was not until the 20^th century, when scientists in Europe first discovered that stem cells were in fact the source of all bloods cells. In 1998, stem cells used to regenerate damaged organs became possible, which James Thomas at the University of Wisconsin and John Gearhart grew the first human embryonic stem cells. This is what the first seed of controversy on the topic stem cells were planted.

Bipolar? By What Evidence? A Look into the Recent Surge in Diagnosed Bipolar Disorder Especially in Youth, by Paul Rilett

In recent years there has been much talk and research devoted to the increase in psychological disorders, especially those that are diagnosed in children. There have been news articles and television specials about “Attention Deficit Disorder on the rise!” or “Autism hits new high in our youth!” One of these disorders that has become increasingly diagnosed over in the past two centuries is bipolar disorder, formally known as manic-depressive disorder. The question is, does this mean that there is an increase of bipolar disorder, or is we simply over diagnosing this condition?

Exercise and the Elderly, by Eric Ignatowski

Exercise has been proven to do everything from treating depression to improving ones memory. With exercising having the ability to cure and prevent a handful of conditions why wouldn’t you want to exercise to continue to get the most out of your life? Exercise releases certain neurotransmitters in the brain that reduce pain, both mentally and physically.  Exercise exerts its effects on the brain through Neurogenesis (a process that develops new neurons to enhance learning reduce stress and prevent certain diseases), mood enhancement, and releasing certain endorphins.

Regular exercise is very beneficial for the body as well as to the mind. Some of the benefits of exercise include less chances of coronary heart diseases, reduced risk of high blood pressure and hypertension, decreased resting heart rate so that the heart need not work as hard to pump the same amount of blood (resting heart rate is the number of heart beats per minute when you first wake up and before you get up), causes an increase in the bone density and reduces the risk of osteoporosis. Besides, regular exercise improves the strength and stamina of the individual, improves blood circulation, reduces excessive weight, and even helps in reducing stress. Older people can benefit from exercises through an improvement in the level of co-ordination and balance, relieving constipation, helps to control weight and improves sense of general well-being.

Violence in Video Games, by Jena Elsie Ramirez

            There is a lot of questioning on whether children should be allowed to purchase and play violent video games or even play video games in general. There have been ratings put on video games to help make parents aware of what their children are playing, as well as it being illegal to sell video games to a minor without a parent or legal guardian being present to give approval for the purchase of a game. To be able to purchase video games with mature ratings, the individual must have an identification card stating that he or she is of legal age to make the purchase.

Video games are an increasingly big issue since they are becoming more popular for both the young male and now the female population as well. Most parents will object and some will even ban their children from owning and/or using gaming consoles. A lot of parents feel there are too many negative consequences associated with their children being lost in a three dimensional world for hours upon end.

Genetic Therapy, by Gilbert Morales

            Genetic therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual’s body in order to treat a disease or change a feature of a person. People can now choose to have a child treated before the child is born in order to change what attributes the child has. It is not one hundred percent effective but almost always can a doctor give your child blue eyes if the patient wants a child with blue eyes. Some believe this to be wrong, and that the selection process should be left to God and only God. There are many out there who believe that this development is one of the greatest man will discover because scientist can now change a child’s genetic makeup before the child is born. This can save a child’s life, but this can also cause unseen mutations.

Anxiety Disorders: What They Are and How the Rise in Prevalence Will Affect Society, by Lynae Werner

            In a fast-paced society such as the one that we live in it is not surprising to find instances of anxiety. Anxiety is a natural reaction to stress and a constantly moving and demanding schedule puts immense pressure on its adherents. While it is impossible to remove all stress from one’s life and therefore impossible to remove all anxiety it is necessary to question the level of anxiety that is considered healthy. Anxiety can quickly lead to anxiety disorders that have much more severe consequences than the mere stress-related symptoms that an individual with just anxiety may feel. Recent research has shown that anxiety disorders are becoming more prevalent in society. In this paper I will outline the difference between anxiety and anxiety disorders, the symptoms and diagnosis of anxiety disorders, and the implications a rise in anxiety disorders can have on our society.

Same-Sex Parenting, by Iris Castellanos

       In the past two decades the conventional nuclear family has undergone many changes. It is no longer defined as father, mother, and child. In today’s society it has expanded to include single parent families, mixed families, and one of the most controversial the inclusion of gay and lesbian families (Golding, 2006, p. 61). There has been considerable debate in the world about same-sex parenting due to the impact of parental orientation on their children. What is not witnessed by society today are all the challenges that same-sex parented children are facing. The children of same-sex parents are trying to develop and accept that they have gay or lesbian parents. Same-sex parented children are also finding ways to deal with this issue by becoming more active with their parents and their parents lifestyle. Few studies have addressed the experience or perception of adult children of gay lesbian parents. Another lack of studies that were not found in research were how adult same-sex parented children are affected in the future. Six to 14 million children have at least one biological gay or lesbian parent, and eight to 10 million children are being raised in same-sex households (Golding, Harvard, Sullivan, 2006, p. 39). This is a lifestyle that is expanding, and people of this same-sex lifestyle are raising more, and more children. There are many positive aspects to children being raised in same-sex households as there are negatives.

Concussions in American Football, by Bradley Sanders

With fingers and hands grasping tightly around leathered dome shaped ball, Barry huffs as his foot begins to plummet toward the earth leaving all 245 pounds of body mass to fall on it. As the other foot begins to follow, Barry pumps his arms pulling the weight of his body along with them bringing him to full speed. Ignoring all that is around him, he guns for the end zone which is about 20 yards out. Barry looks up at the big screen to see who is behind him when a 235 pound safety smacks him from his right side while running at full speed jerking Berry straight to the ground causing his head to slam into the turf.  Barry has just earned himself a concussion. The NFL and its players are experiencing more concussion in recent years and the organization needs to stop ignoring the ethical responsibility they own and take the appropriate actions to insure the safety of their players in a timely manner. The NFL has made changes to some rules of the game and equipment upgrades but they are not making them quick enough. Players and families are at risk and so are the values of Americans and all fellow Americanized football participants.

Stability in Romantic Relationships, by Wallace McCanless

            Marriage longevity and stability are desired characteristics in a relationship but are not always obtained. There are several factors that may contribute to the stability or dissolution of a marriage or dating relationship. These factors are suggested as having significant predictions in both stability and dissolution. The components that served as significant predictors included but are not limited to: how a couple handles conflict, perceived partner responsiveness and partner- enhancement versus self-enhancement. Each of the three studies focused on different aspects of marriage and dating relationships but all three contribute to a larger perspective and understanding of how both might function when certain criterion are met.

Concussions and How They Affect Athletes, by Ryan Sciascia

Over the last several months, the topic of concussions has been heavily discussed; especially throughout and in relation to the sports world. However, what would one define as a concussion? Dr. Alan Ashare, a member of the Department of Radiology at St. Elizabeth’s Medical Center in Boston, Massachusetts, tries to define the word. He says, “Concussion is defined as a complex pathophysiological process affecting the brain, induced by traumatic biomechanical forces (Ashare, 2009, p. 774).” Concussions, although often occurring due to direct shots to the head and/or face, can also occur if the “blow” has an effect on the head. When one suffers a concussion, neurological function of the brain becomes impaired for a brief period of time; but major neuropathological changes are unlikely (Ashare, 2009, p. 774).

Theories of Depression, by Andrew Gerzevske

            The World Health Organization reported in the results of their most recent global health assessment (Global Burden of Disease Survey) that “In 2002, depression accounted for 4.5% of the worldwide total burden of disease (in terms of disability-adjusted life years). It is also responsible for the greatest proportion of burden attributable to non-fatal health outcomes, accounting for almost 12% of total years lived with disability worldwide (World Health Organization, 2007).” This means that at a global scale the disorder of depression effects the lives of billions; being that disorders effect the individuals with the disorder and the people close to them. This also means the symptoms associated with this disorder are cross cultural and therefore many different ideologies have sought to treat them.

Postpartum Psychosis: An Ethical Debate, by Maria Girardi

Pregnancy and the postpartum period are usually an exciting and joyful experience for women. This does not mean that this period is perfect and problem free. Some women suffer from the “baby blues”, postpartum depression and even more severe postpartum psychosis. Unfortunately, there have been cases where women with severe postpartum psychosis have resulted in killing their own children. An ethical issue arises when these women go on trial because the legal system has to determine if the courts will push for the death penalty.  The use of the death penalty is unethical if the person is determined insane because the woman suffers from postpartum psychosis.

Distinguishing the difference between the “baby blues”, postpartum depression (PPD), and postpartum psychosis (PP) is crucial to understand when determining the correct punishment for women.  The “baby blues” also known as “maternal blues” is the most common type out of the three. According to the Medical Doctors Clay and Seehusen (2004), “Many women fifty to eight-five percent experience the “baby blues,” characterized by mild depressive symptoms, anxiety, irritability, mood swings, tearfulness, increased sensitivity, and fatigue”  (Clay, Seehusen, 2004, p.158). The peak for the “baby blues” is usually four to five days postpartum and typically resolves within ten days (Clay, Seehusen, 2004). Although the symptoms of the “baby blues” are stressful, they usually do not affect the woman’s ability to care for her children. Even though postpartum depression is less common than the “baby blues” PPD is more common than physicians realize.

Why Do We Believe in the Paranormal?, by Miriam Villanueva

            Why do we believe in the paranormal? If we were to ask a skeptic, he/she may say something such as our brain is just trying to make sense out of nonsense or an individual’s upbringing, culture and beliefs affects his/her perception of what’s real and what isn’t. If we were to ask a believer the same question, he/she may say something such as you have a gift or there must be a reason why you’re being contacted. Whether we believe in the supernatural or not, the unknown is everywhere, if people didn’t believe there were ghost, spirits, demons, etc, then why address it in books, educated journals, magazines, T.V shows or movies. Moreover, what’s the difference between believing in the paranormal or believing in the existence of higher being(s). When people talk about believing in the paranormal, some see them as delirious, however most of us believe in a higher power.

Autism and Neuropsychology, by Marisa Marzillo

Autism is a lifelong disorder that has become the discussion of many media outlets; it is a disorder that causes abnormal neurological development. It seems that lately autism prevalence is increasing, which is causing a demand for professionals to investigate on what causes autism.  Autism disorder is characterized by different behavior including social impairments, difficulty in communication, and restrictive patterns of behavior. Individuals living with autism don’t have a lower IQ than most people, but it is common that they have weak social interaction. Researchers have stated that it is unclear what causes autism; it ranges from environmental surroundings to a strain on normal brain development. The three main subjects that researchers have said are a cause of autism are brain development, genes, and environmental.

Parkinson's Disease, by Helen Loving

            Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a disease becoming more prevalent in society today. There are many individuals that have Parkinson’s, but it wasn’t brought to the front eyes of until the 1800s and when it was announced that Muhammad Ali and Michael J. Fox was diagnosed with this life changing disease. Parkinson’s is a disease one can live with and not a death sentence. In this paper, we will discuss what Parkinson’s is, the symptoms, how it affects the brain, genetic background, possible treatments, and the diagnosis of Muhammad Ali and Michael J. Fox. PD  is disease everyone must know, and early symptoms can help them get early treatment.

The Benefits of Music and Music Therapy, by Katy Orland

            Have you ever wondered why listening to music is so popular?  Music is an integral part of culture all around the world, and without it, life would be a lot less enjoyable.  There are scientific findings that support why people walk around town with headphones on, dance to songs at clubs and gather together in concert halls.  Studies show that music arouses the same parts of the brain that favorite foods, sex and drugs activate.  In other words, listening to music is enjoyable.  Musical involvement in early childhood affects brain development and positively affects musical abilities into adulthood.  Unfortunately, the association between classical music and intelligence is generally misinterpreted and has therefore been implemented incorrectly in the past.  For some with brain damage music therapy has proven to be beneficial.  Music is not only pleasurable, but it is also therapeutic and beneficial.  Let’s take a closer look at how the brain interprets music.

Concussions, by Marianne Vranek

            The brain is a part of our body that has many important functions.  The brain can almost be considered “the network” of our body, our memory, senses, coordination, and etc. all done with the help of the parts (hemispheres) of the brain.  So why do people put such a vital part of their body at risk over years?  Why don’t we learn to protect something that is so vital and want it to be everlasting and perform its best?

            Like any part of the body there are many different types of injuries that can cause damage. Bones you can break, shatter, or fracture or just simply sprain.  The severity of an injury can prevent the correct treatment, how is the severity of the injury evaluated properly?

Autism and Neuropsychology, by Marisa Marzillo

Autism is a lifelong disorder that has become the discussion of many media outlets; it is a disorder that causes abnormal neurological development. It seems that lately autism prevalence is increasing, which is causing a demand for professionals to investigate on what causes autism.  Autism disorder is characterized by different behavior including social impairments, difficulty in communication, and restrictive patterns of behavior. Individuals living with autism don’t have a lower IQ than most people, but it is common that they have weak social interaction. Researchers have stated that it is unclear what causes autism; it ranges from environmental surroundings to a strain on normal brain development. The three main subjects that researchers have said are a cause of autism are brain development, genes, and environmental.

Depression, by Anna Langowska

            It is very upsetting to turn the television on in the morning and hear about another teenager that has ended his/ her life because life itself has become too unbearable to continue. Usually such pain is very visible, in their walk, in their talk, in their actions and in the face, especially the eyes. There is no reason for things to get so out of hand.

            Major depressive disorder affects approximately 14.8 million American adults, or about 6.7 % of the U.S. population age 18 and older in a given year (The National Institute of Health, 2010). About 2.5% of children in the U.S. suffer from depression. Depression is significantly more common in boys under the age of 10. But by age 16, girls have a greater incidence of depression (Web M.D., 2010)

Sexual Addiction, by Brooke Burmeister

            With the recent media surges surrounding certain celebrities' personal lives, such as Tiger Woods, Jesse James and Charlie Sheen, and their short time in “rehab” one may beg to ask the question if sexual addiction actually exists and if it does, do these rich and powerful people suffer from this affliction or is this a way for them to make an excuse for their promiscuous behavior?  This paper will not answer questions regarding if certain celebrities are telling the truth regarding having this sexual addiction. That truth is between that person only.  The purpose of this paper is to hopefully answer questions regarding the how sexual addiction works, the possible causes of sexual addiction, the possible treatment for sexual addiction and the validity/controversy of sexual addiction.  Hopefully, with this information being presented, this will lead to an understanding of this affliction. Just like everything else, more needs to be known about sexual addiction.  More data needs to be gathered and compiled about this issue.  This paper will shed some light on this topic, but if anything, this paper will also bring forth a true need for more knowledge of this topic so that more people can be helped.

Mothers' Love or Hate? by Heather Seils

Pregnant women going to parties and smoking cocaine, marijuana, and injecting LSD have no clue what they are doing to their bodies or even to their fetus that is developing. Who would think that a crack mother giving birth to an infant may have serious affects down the road? The crack epidemic took a hit in the 1980’s in the United States (Reese 2004). Is the government in today’s society doing enough to help stop mother’s who use cocaine and are pregnant? Addictions can happen to anyone whether it is a food, alcohol, or drug addictions. People try things such as: cocaine, smoking, LSD, and prescription drugs where their body becomes use to the substances and craves more. Imagine being pregnant while you are smoking cocaine and every puff you take gets in the fetus. The fetus is affected in many ways, such as developmental disorders, growth, and emotional effects. That child is already addicted to cocaine before it is ever born. Your child had no choice on if he or she wanted to be addicted to the substances or not.

Neurological Correlates of Music: Processing of Pleasant and Unpleasant Music in the Brain, by Carmen Marroquin

William James stated music was no more than “a mere incidental peculiarity of the nervous system, with no teleological significance” (as cited in Dissanayake, 2009, chapter 2, p. 21). James, however, failed to recognize the significance and importance of music in our lives. Music is an important part of our surroundings. Music is ubiquitous, possibly serving an evolutionary function (see,Dissanayake,2009, chapter 2). Individuals listen to music while studying, driving, excersizing, or while relaxing at home. There are those who create and play music as well. Music even has the ability to elicit emotional responses and has been described by many to be a medium of self expression. Have you ever associated a song with an important event in your life (e.g., marriage or death)?  Has a song made you cry or liven up your spirit? In addition to the subjective meaning music takes in individuals’ lives, there are physiological correlates known to arise from listening to music, such as the experience of “thrills” (Goldstein, 1980). Even with some of physiological responses to music known, the effects of music at the neurological level needs to be examined. The quote which started this paper was right in one regard—the importance of the nervous system—but not until recently have we been able to test the peculiarities of the nervous system, or of the brain, while listening to music. Specifically, this paper will examine the neurological correlates of emotional responding to music. Music and the effects it has on the brain are robust and too lengthy to explain in this short essay.  This is why only pleasant and unpleasant musical effects will be examined.

The Ethical Implications of Embryonic Stem Cell Research, by Maya Pencheva

The major ethical issue standing in the base of embryonic stem cell research concerns mainly the moral status of the embryo. The question whether the embryo should be given a full moral status, as the one that would be given to an individual is a matter of serious debates. The two sides of this debate are concerned with the following matters; on one hand, those who are against the embryonic stem cell research defend the idea that from the moment of the conception, the embryo has full moral status, and on the other hand the defendants of the idea that no moral status should be assigned to embryo at the time when used and destroyed in the research. The debate appears to have not only moral but political significance to a major extent (Brock, 2010). Along with simply fighting pro and con positions, researchers and scientists are trying to work on finding alternatives to help them continue the stem cell research, without overstepping any moral boundaries.

Grief in America, by Lindsey Bach

            Unfortunately as we all get older we have more and more opportunities to deal with grief. Many of us may have already dealt with the unfortunate experience of losing a close friend or a loved one. Like so many other things in life, we aren’t given a handbook on how to deal with the grief we feel after someone we care about dies. In our society especially death and the grieving process are practically taboo. American’s aren’t comfortable talking about death and dying even though it’s a process that we all must at some point, sooner or later go through ourselves. In America, we are all expected to grieve the same way and for the designated amount of time when in reality those expectations just aren’t accurate. Many American’s focus on the Kübler-Ross model of grieving to help guide us through a death process when in reality those steps rarely all apply to a death or even to people in general. Treatment is also a focus in American society. Medications and therapies are advertised in order to help people deal with their grief, though few people actually require those services. Do we even need treatments in order to deal with our grief or is it actually our society that can’t deal with others unhappiness and grief?

Testosterone: The Forgotten Hormone: Its Significance and Controversy, by James Orozco

Homeostasis is a finely-tuned regulatory system greatly influenced by chemicals called hormones.  When the body senses internal “red flags”, hormones are secreted into the blood directly or through ducts to offset the change within its system.  These chemicals can have a drastic effect on the body such as melatonin which regulates the circadian rhythm, vasopressin which constricts blood vessels to control blood pressure and oxytocin which promotes uterine contractions to name a few.   Testosterone, a sex hormone, is not limited to simply the development of sexual organs or sexual characteristics but affects mood, energy levels, fertility and libido¹.  More importantly is the profound effect upon overall health and mortality.

Animal Testing, by Lorin Manganiello

            Ethics is defined as a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality; that is, about concepts such as good and bad, right and wrong, justice and virtue. As people, we question a lot of things that we do and ask ourselves if they are morally right. One question that many ask is if animal testing is right or wrong. Should we use animals for the sake of human beings? Is an animal’s life worth less then a person’s? These questions along with many others are raised within the ethical questions of animal testing.  During the beginning of research studies we see that animals had no rights. Until the 18^th century, we know that animals were thought of property, such as a lamp or a desk. There were not any animal protection laws, and no one cared if an animal was suffering. Within time many people have started to stand up for animal rights, and began to organize groups for the protection of animals. Some organizations include, the American Humane Society, the American Society for the Prevention of cruelty to Animals, and the National Anti-Vivisection Society.

ADHD Background and Medication Treatments, by Olivia Desimone

In out society we look at all the risks that a child may have when learning. When you become a parent, you start to worry does my child have symptoms of this?, does he have symptoms of this?, It is always in a parents mind. Most the time parents are in denial especially when it goes to a teacher coming up to them and saying that they might have signs of ADHD or another disability. ADHD is very common in young children, not necessarily when a psychologist comes in and diagnosis a child, but children themselves are active. Parents need to look at specific symptoms and if they have trouble doing that same task over and over again. A specific guide to what parents should be looking at is if the child looses focus easily. With this being said not just attention span, because all children loose attention real easily, but if they can’t even focus for about two minutes. They should also look at if they are hyper all the time, not just when they get excited, but all the time.

Effects of Corporal Punishment, by Kiera Rhodes

What is corporal punishment? This is a hard question because there are so many different opinions. Some say it’s a spanking on the behind of a person mostly toddlers. Others say it’s hitting a child with a belt. "Corporal punishment is the use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain, but not injury for the purpose of correction or control of the child’s behavior" (Donnelly, Straus, 1994, 4). Both of the cases stated above are part of corporal punishment one is just worse than the other. The major problem seems to be drawing the line between corporal punishment and child abuse. As the child rate in our country grows, teaching a child right from wrong is the most important tasks facing parents and educators. That is why corporal punishment is not always best. Sometimes it just takes a little talking for a child to understand. As a society we should know the effects corporal punishment have on a child as they get older, so some parents will at least cut back, if not stop. "People are more likely to be hit, beat up, physically injured, or even killed in their own homes by another family member than anywhere else and by anyone else in our society" (Gelles, 1979, 11). Corporal punishment has a lot of effects and produce problems on a child, and society will find out just what those effects are through research.

From an Autistic Point of View, by Clinton Boyd, Jr.

Introduction

Autism is a pervasive developmental disorder that can manifest itself across a wide spectrum of severity, to different degrees. The symptoms or characteristics of autism can sometimes be easy or difficult to identify depending on the severity of the disease. Since autism is not identified with the use of a blood test and a lab report, doctors have figured out a set of characteristics. The characteristics of autism are broke down into three categories, which include: social interaction and relationships, verbal and nonverbal communication and limited interest in activity or play. Each of these three groups has their own subset of characteristics. After diagnosis, the next step a parent has to make is, deciding on potential treatments or therapies. The most common form of therapy is applied behavior analysis. ABA picks up where diagnosis leaves off, by studying of the same characteristics that were used in diagnosis and applying them to form a therapeutic curriculum for the child. Knowing what area the child is the most affected will make treatment much easier, by focusing on the areas that need the most attention to ensure the child can be functioning. After initial therapy, the parents of an autistic child may want their children to go to school. In this case, there are new programs and classes that are specially suited for children with autism.

55 to Life? by Susan Helmke

Perhaps one of the most overlooked populations in U.S is the elderly; even more so, the elderly prisoner. Why does this population matter and why should we care? Although there have been many revisions to the health care elderly prisoners receive, there is an absence of a protocol of what happens when prisoners become too old to take care of themselves. While states fumble around for different solutions to this constant debate, there is no concise measurement of how effective any of these solutions are because there is no universal starting point to measure the progress of this ever-growing dilemma.

 From an economic perspective, the average cost to fund a prisoner’s healthcare for one year is $18,570 that number skyrockets to $67,000 a year for prisoners over the age of 55. (McDonald, 1999, p. 88). Furthermore, “despite the costly age redistribution, little is known about geriatric disability or health care in prison,” (Williams M.D., Lindquist MS., Sudore M.D., Strupp, Willmott, & Walter MD, 2006, p. 703). From a humanitarian perspective many of the officers, who are also the inmate’s primary source of assistance, are not even aware of an inmate’s disability and therefore are unable to get them any of the help they need for daily living activities. “Disability, a strong predictor of healthcare costs, morbidity, and mortality in older adults is common in older prisoners, but officers are rarely trained to recognize geriatric disability and overcrowding can impede familiarity with assigned prisoners needs,” (Williams, et al., 2009, p. 1290). For prisoners who are released into the community, many are released with highly communicable diseases such as AIDS and tuberculosis and without any means of income or housing. In 1996 it was found that the prevalence of tuberculosis among inmates was six times greater than in the community, (Stojkovic Ph.D, 2007, p. 48). In addition to the many untreated diseases, an elderly released prisoner also faces a great amount of emotional and psychological trauma in transition back into community life.